Edexcel special
Can we really say what religion is?
Gordon Reid looks at different attempts to define religion
Edexcel AS Unit 2: Investigations — The study of religion
The term ‘religion’ is difficult to define because it encompasses many different aspects — so many that some have asked if it is really possible to say what religion is at all. There are a few basics to consider — for instance, we might start by saying that religion is a set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature and purpose of the universe and, even, of life itself. Sometimes, though by no means always, religion involves belief in a deity or deities and/or the search for ultimate truth.
Some religions include stories, symbols, teachings and practices which are designed to give meaning to a believer’s experiences of life, while others highlight the importance of worship, devotion and obedience to a moral code. Then again, religion may focus on the supernatural or metaphysical aspects of the universe or on ancient and cultural traditions that run through human stories, history, faith and experience.
Finding a definition that fits
Put simply, religion can probably be defined as a system of linked-together communities with a common faith and moral code, together seeking the truth about God. In other words, for some people religion is the way that they live their lives.
But a really convincing and solid definition of religion has proved much harder to find. Many scholars have tried. Here are a few examples:
‘the recognition of all our duties as divine commands’
Kant
‘a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things’
Durkheim
‘a feeling of for the infinite…a feeling of absolute dependence’
Schleiermacher
‘a set of institutionalised rituals with a tradition and expressing and/or evoking sacral sentiments directed at a divine or trans-divine focus’
Ninian Smart
Perhaps the best that can be done is to find a definition of religion that fits both religious and nonreligious systems. This will probably include one or more of the following:
■ the belief in something sacred
■ a distinction between sacred and nonsacred objects
■ rituals
■ a moral code believed to come from God
■ religious feelings of awe, mystery and wonder
■ prayer or other communication with God
■ a community bound together by a mutual faith
■ a world view and our individual place in it
■ lives lived in accordance with that world view
Specialised definitions
However, such definitions of religion usually suffer from being too narrow and vague. Defining religion as ‘belief in God’, for example, excludes Buddhism. Similarly, defining religion as a ‘world view’ can be meaningless because it covers everything and nothing. So, to avoid these pitfalls, scholars have identified and developed specialised definitions of religion.
The inclusivist definition
The inclusivist definition of religion emphasises its universal nature — humans are homo religio because everyone is, in some way, religious. Religion can, therefore, be seen in human action, social convention, tradition, culture, moral ideas and in belief in what is most meaningful. A supporter of this view was Tillich who, in Dynamics of Faith (1957), defined religion as that which is of the utmost importance for people: ‘…for every human has ultimate concerns.’
However, in this inclusivist definition even atheism and agnosticism can be seen to be religious, for they are concerned with what someone believes. So, the definition fails.
The theological definition
The theological definition of religion requires a religion to have proper and specific theological teachings concerning such matters as the spiritual realm, a god or gods who relate to humanity, a moral code, symbols and a historical tradition.
This is done either by comparing different religions and finding similar teachings and beliefs within them, or by seeing how believers in different faiths repeat certain actions, such as going to church, partaking in festivals, meditation and prayer. In other words, religion is defined as having to do with the specific beliefs of individuals that have some meaning and purpose for their lives. However, once again, the lack of real clarity in the definition is evident. It fails though its vagueness.
The metaphysical definition
Some claim that religion can only be defined in a metaphysical way. Metaphysics comes from the Greek meta (meaning ‘beyond’ or ‘after’) and physika, meaning physical — hence something beyond the physical world. It defines religion by looking at notions such as time, space, existence and causality. Religion is about something beyond this way of life — something that transcends the reality offered by science. It is concerned with fundamental questions about the nature of life and the existence of the universe and highlights that which is beyond our physical reality. It includes metaphysical aspects such as love, sin, evil and life after death. This view is supported by a number of scholars. William James in The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902) called it:
‘the feelings, acts and experiences of individual men in their solitude, so far as they apprehend themselves to stand in relation to whatever they may consider divine’
Schleiermacher in The Christian Faith (1999) suggested that behind all religion was a feeling of the divine which leads to a sense of ‘absolute dependence’.
Rudolf Otto, looking at God’s mystery, power, transcendence and majesty in The Idea of the Holy (1917), defined religion as the mysterious feeling of awe and wonder conveyed by the ultimate holiness — which enables us to understand the beauty of creation, and the concepts of truth and goodness, together with a great desire to do good. He called this the numinous, the lens through which we can understand the mysteries of reality.
However, the same criticisms of the definition remain — it is vague, and that is its downfall.
The reductive definition
Finally, the reductive definition of religion takes the most simplistic view of all, namely that religion is a code of human concepts concerned with right and wrong or which explain the environment, the problem of evil and suffering and the way we understand the world around us. Reductivism has become more popular as scientific approaches to knowledge and understanding have threatened or challenged more traditional definitions of religion. Thus, in The God Delusion (2006) Richard Dawkins declares:
‘If we are gullible, we don’t recognise hallucinations or lucid dreaming for what it is and we claim to have seen or heard a ghost, or an angel, or God…such visions and manifestations are certainly not good grounds for believing that ghosts or angels, gods or virgins are actually there.’
A good example of reductivism in religon concerns the myths in the Bible. A myth i s ion a story or narrative that expresses a truth when it is not known for certain what actually happened. Myths use symbolism and imagery to explain the unexplainable. Famous biblical myths include the stories of creation and Noah’s Ark. Rudolph Bultmann argued in Kerygma and Myth (1953) that, in order to find out the truth about a religion, it should be demythologised — that is, the myths contained in scriptures must be removed. He believed that it was impossible for humanity in modern times to believe such outdated stories:
‘It is impossible to use electric light and the wireless and to avail ourselves of modern medical and surgical discoveries and at the same time, to believe in the New Testament world of demons and spirits.’
The reductive definition looks at religion in terms of its function in society — as a psychological or social constraint — and famous reductivist theories include Sigmund Freud’s notion that religion is nothing more than an illusion and Marx’s view that religion is the last hope of the oppressed. It gains support from Dawkins, who advocates reductivism as the best method of definition by claiming that other more supernatural explanations of the world prevent humans from developing further:
‘Growing up in the universe…also means growing out of parochial and supernatural views of the universe… not copping out with superstitious ideas.’
Royal Institution Christmas lectures (19 91)
This ‘Edexcel special’ is the responsibility ’ of RELIGIOUS STUDIES REVIEW and has been neither provided nor approved by Edexcel.