AQA special
Buddhism’s religious context
In the first of a two-part AQA special, Richard Gray considers the religious background of the Buddha in order to understand the platform from which his specific teachings about samsara developed
The first topic in the AQA specification for RSS09 Buddhism is ‘Samsara and the three marks of existence’. Although such teachings may be considered in abstract, the truth is that they emerged from the context of the Buddha’s upbringing and later experiences of life.
When Buddhism was emerging, India had as much religious variety as it does today. Modern India’s mix of religious traditions and different worldviews, with cultural and regional variations, produces a diversity of religious expression. At the time of the Buddha (c. 480–400 BCE), the religious and philosophical ideas were no less complicated. Although Christianity, Islam and Sikhism were not yet founded, there were other religions and philosophies (some no longer exist in their original forms), and there would have been much questioning and debate both within and between these groups.
Religious background Hinduism
The first religious idea to consider when looking at the context of Buddhism is Hinduism. What is Hinduism? Many scholars have disagreed about the answer to this question. Gavin Flood admits that any definition has ‘fuzzy edges’. Julius Lipner presents a variety of definitions from scholars, and Paul Dundas quotes the Indian Constitution (article 25) to indicate that today we define Hinduism in its broadest sense.
Hinduism was originally a term used to identify the peoples, cultures and religions of the Indus Valley, as it was known. In this sense, it did not really describe a set of beliefs or practices. However, with the development in its meaning, many attempts have been made to define what Hinduism is now.
Here are some key quotations about the nature of Hinduism:
‘Hinduism is a way of life, a collection of religions, a complex culture one yet many.’
Julius Lipner
‘When the terms ‘Hindu’ and ‘Hinduism’ are used…they are taken to include the Jains, along with the Sikhs and Buddhists.’
Article 25 of the Indian Constitution
‘Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas incorporated by the term ‘Hindu’, it is a problem arriving at a definition… . It has fuzzy edges. Some forms of religion are central to Hinduism, while others are less clearly central but still within the category.’
Gavin Flood
’Hinduism is all things to all men.’
Jawaharlal Nehru, first prime minister of India
Without exploring all possibilities, I would like to offer a working definition to clarify matters:
The religion of popular Hinduism as we know it today includes all varieties of religious expression surrounding popular Hindu deities. This type of Hinduism is different from Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. Popular Hindu practices all share ideas about reincarnation, the eternal soul, the importance of daily worship, meditation and the idea that a wandering holy person can achieve liberation.
The first aspect of this type of Hinduism in history is the distinctive feature of the Brahman.
Brahmanism
One particular expression of Hinduism from the time of the Buddha is often referred to as Brahmanism. To the northeast of India, surrounding the Ganges Basin, is the area where Siddhattha Gotama, the Buddha, was active. Born around 480 BCE to wealthy parents, sometimes referred to as the local royalty, Siddhattha would have been familiar with the religious ideas of Brahmanism.
Brahmanism was based on both written holy books and complex rituals. These holy books (Vedas) were used to guide and give instructions for the performance of sacrificial rites that involved animals, and where the role of the Brahmin or priest was vital. It was believed that prayers offered during the performance of the sacrifice satisfied the gods, so achieving the underlying purpose of retaining order in the universe.
In early Indian religion, it was broadly assumed that there were three levels of existence, namely:
■ the physical
■ the spiritual
■ the phonic (sound)
The physical was represented by the sacrifice, the spiritual by the role of the priest and the phonic by the chanting of a prayer. It was believed that such a combination, together, had the power needed to influence the universe and maintain order.
Meditation was also a feature of Brahmanism. At first, meditation was a preparation for the sacrifice. As Brahmanism developed, meditation became a substitute for the sacrifice and was used as a means of mental focus or internalisation. The idea of the Brahman, the universal spirit, and the atman, the individual soul, became dominant in Indian thought, as did the notion of a continual round or cycle of reincarnations, known as samsara (‘the cycle of life, death and rebirth’). The goal of practising religion was to advance through complex rituals and through meditation to achieve liberation from this round of reincarnation. It was believed that the soul then became united with Brahman.
Finally, in Brahmanism there is the basic idea of karma, as developed in later Indian thought. Although early Brahmanism taught that all areas of spiritual influence were restricted to religious ritual, it later embraced the idea that actions or karma beyond the sacrifice affected the reincarnation of the individual soul.
Alongside Brahmanism were various religious groups, the first of which were the Samanas.
The Samanas
There are always variations in teaching and practice in any major religious tradition, and while at the time of the Buddha these variations were small, some people rejected Brahmanism completely. Those who did this were known as Samanas. They formed groups of wandering holy men or philosophers who were trying to find answers to ultimate questions. There are several examples of different types of Samanas, including Jains, Ajivikas, Materialists and Sceptics. A summary of their beliefs and practices will help gain some insight into the Buddha’s cultural and religious environment.
Samanas rejected Brahmanism because they disliked the social elitism of the Brahmins and the idea of ritual sacrifice. They were similar to the wandering holy persons of modern-day India. Like them, they cut all family ties and were dependent on the general public for their food.
Samanas were usually ascetic and practised advanced forms of meditation, having little sleep and very little food. It is often stated that Buddhism was originally a Samana movement, as the Buddha himself became a wandering holy man.
The Jains
Although later becoming clearly distinct from Hinduism and Buddhism, Jain practices were part of the religious fabric of the time. Vardhamana, the Mahavira or Great Hero, was the first person to practise Jainism as an official philosophy and is often acknowledged as its founder.
Jain teaching accepted reincarnation and the idea of samsara but disagreed with traditional views on escaping the cycle of samsara. Crucial to this difference was its notion of karma.
Instead of the atman or soul, Jains believed in the existence of a life-essence called jiva. This is like an internal spark, energy or essence that runs through all living and non-living matter. This jiva, however, is encased by karma that accumulates and leads to further reincarnation.
The aim of the Jain practitioner is to free the jiva from the cycle of samsara in two ways:
■ by following a disciplined lifestyle involving yoga and severe practices guided by the principle of ahimsa or non-violence towards any living being
■ by wiping out any possible new karma, through a policy of non-action, and to wait for all previous karmic effects to take their course and die away
The Ajivikas
Makkhali Gosala was the leader associated with this Samana movement, although there are other leaders identified in the Buddhist writings.
Gosala’s major disagreement with other religious groups of the time was his outright rejection of the idea of karma. Instead, he replaced it with the idea of niyati or destiny. Every soul has its own uniquely prescribed path that is already set out. Even the number of reincarnations has already been calculated. Therefore, the idea of karma becomes redundant.
In practice, the Ajivikas were similar to the Jains in that they also lived a life of strict discipline, even to the extremes of self-harming and starvation.
The Materialists
The Materialists, along with the other Samanas, rejected Brahmanism. They did this not only because of dogmatic differences but because they regarded religious ritual as unscientific. Indeed, Materialists were empiricists and they rejected any ideas that were based on non-empirical evidence that, they felt, could not be tested. These ideas included karma, reincarnation and the idea of a soul.
The main practice of a Materialist was to celebrate life, and, although this can be done in many ways, they were generally encouraged to follow a noble and moral path.
The Sceptics
The Sceptics (or ‘eel-wrigglers’, as Peter Harvey describes them) did not have any particular teaching or practice. Instead they constantly weighed things up and seemed reluctant to reach conclusions. Despite arguing against the views and theories of others they remained ‘devil’s advocates’ at all times, without commitment to any particular position.
The Indian context
How did the Buddha’s teachings and practices relate to his immediate Indian context?
With regard to the background against which Buddhism emerged, there were common areas in the Buddha’s teaching shared by all religious groups, common areas shared with some religious groups, some religious ideas that were rejected and even some religious ideas that were modified.
There were also new ideas that were exclusive to Buddhism.
What the Buddha accepted
■ Samsara: the Buddha accepted the notion of an endless cycle of existences and also the possibility of moksha, which was escape from this cycle.
■ Meditation: in keeping with all religious traditions of the time, the Buddha taught that realisation of truth was through meditation. However, he did not feel that extreme physical meditation worked and he rejected the idea of a personal union with an absolute power.
■ Gods and goddesses: while the Buddha accepted the cosmology or theory of the universe of the day, he felt that deities were still subject to samsara and therefore ignorant and in need of nirvana or enlightenment, which is ultimate wisdom. The concept of a supreme deity or creator God was not rejected outright, but it would be true to say that it was irrelevant to early Buddhism.
What the Buddha refined or modified
■ Reincarnation: the Buddha taught rebirth and not reincarnation. Reincarnation requires some kind of soul or entity that is constant but simply takes on a different form. The Buddha did not accept the existence of such an elusive entity but favoured a passing on of energies from one form to another.
■ Karma: the concept of karma was refined or even redefined to include thoughts as well as actions. Karma became more precise and internalised, according to Gombrich.
■ Nirvana: the Buddha accepted that escape from the cycle of samsara was possible. However, the Buddha’s concept of nirvana superseded this. Some have described the Buddhist notion of nirvana as truly ineffable: it was impossible to put into words.
What the Buddha rejected
■ Belief in the atman and Brahman, jiva and niyati: the idea that we all have a permanent, eternal entity within us, whether it be a force, power or soul, was firmly rejected by the Buddha.
What was new about the Buddha’s teaching?
■ Instead of accepting the idea of a soul, the Buddha observed that things were anatta or not-self, and that we could not identify any one thing within ourselves that we could call ‘me’. This has far-reaching implications for the rest of Buddhist teaching.
■ The idea of moderation and balance in life was very new. The Buddha also adopted the idea of a ‘middle path’ between extremes of behaviour which was a clear departure from the asceticism or materialistic views around at the time.
Hopefully, this column will have helped you to put into context the teachings of the Buddha found in your studies of samsara. My next column will deal specifically with Buddhist teachings about samsara itself.
This ‘AQA special’ is the responsibility of RELIGIOUS STUDIES REVIEW and has been neither provided nor approved by AQA.