Gender, age and religious belief
Gordon Reid explores some interesting psycho-sociological questions about the relationship between age, gender and religious commitment
WJEC A2 RS3: Religion in contemporary society Edexcel 6RS02: Unit 1
What effect does a person’s gender or age have on his or her religious belief? Although so far research has been inconclusive, there is strong evidence to suggest that many people, because of their age or gender, are very likely to have strong religious beliefs.
Who is drawn to religion?
One of the earliest studies, by Pratt in The Religious Experience (1924), found that certain types of people are more likely to be drawn to religion than others — often those dominated by feelings of guilt, shame, self-doubt and unworthiness. Later Allport in The Individual and His Religion (1950) concluded that, where religion was involved, there are two types of personality: the ‘intrinsic’ for whom religion is very real and who take their belief seriously, and the ‘extrinsic’ who tend to see religion as a means to an end — for example, finding friends in a religious community.
Recent studies suggest that many converts to religious faith have personalities affected by unhappy childhoods and are often depressed or have little self-esteem. Such converts soon report that they feel much better, and feel safe and secure in the religious group. However, many who have been converted leave after quite a short time. Argyle in Psychology and Religion (2006) commented:
‘The general finding here is that religion is not much related to the general personality variables known to psychologists’
Gender
The effect of gender on religious belief is a complex issue and seems to vary from religion to religion. This is because, more often than not, men and women are religious in slightly different ways. For instance, Tamminen in Religious Experience in Childhood (1994) looked into Christianity and found that women seemed to feel closer to God than men. Their view of God was primarily loving, comforting and forgiving, while men often saw God as powerful, planning and controlling. It also seems that women tend to see God as neither male nor female, whereas most men see God as distinctly male. Erikson in Identity and Religion (1958) noted that men see God in the world and as outgoing and active, whereas women see him more inside themselves and value the social aspect of religion much more than men.
Differences within faith groups
Taking it further, the religiosity of men and women is markedly different within various faith groups. For instance, research by Loewenthal in Psychology of Religion (2000) showed that Jewish and Muslim men are more religiously active than women, but that Christian and Hindu women are more active than their male counterparts. Why is this? Studies suggest that the degree to which a person is religious can be measured by looking at their religious behaviour, for instance how often they attend a place of worship, pray or study religious texts.
There may also be a cultural and social element here, with Jewish and Muslim women generally attending a place of worship much less frequently than men. Moreover, Jewish women (unlike men) are not required to pray with a congregation, and so even very religious Jewish women may not go to the synagogue often. Similarly, Muslim women cannot enter a mosque during menstruation. In comparison, Christian women are more likely to attend Bible study groups than men, and women tend to participate more readily in higher levels of religious involvement, prayer and experience.
THE EFFECT OF GENDER ON RELIGIOUS BELIEF IS A COMPLEX ISSUE AND SEEMS TO VARY FROM RELIGION TO RELIGION.
Cultural differences
Loewenthal’s research supported the view that gender differences in religious belief are due, in large part, to cultural differences concerned with the role of men and women within different religious traditions. In Judaism and Islam, the religious role played by men is seen as very prestigious and they are more likely to be engaged in, for example, prayer and the study of scripture. Women are likely to spend more time in the home raising the family, and are less likely to pray or get involved in religious study.
THE GREATEST RELIGIOUS INFLUENCE ON YOUNG CHILDREN IS, NATURALLY, THEIR PARENTS AND THE LIFESTYLE, RELIGIOUS OR OTHERWISE, OF THE FAMILY.
Yet in Christianity, women are much more active and tend to score higher than men on religious participation. Female clergy also differ from their male counterparts in that they tend to be older, and many have had families and other jobs before.
In Hinduism, research by Firth in Religion: a Humanist Interpretation (1997) suggested that Hindu women are more religiously active than men. In particular, puja (prayer) is often carried out at shrines in the home by women and Hindu temples are more frequented by women than men. It seems clear that factors such as social customs, employment issues and status may explain why women are more active in the Christian and Hindu traditions.
There is, however, little conclusive evidence, taking religion as a whole, that there is a marked difference between the religious participation of men and women.
Age
So, if gender is not a decisive factor in religious belief, what about age? In most societies, religious beliefs and practices are passed on to children through social learning in the family, religious education at home and within the community and specific religious schools. The very young accept the religious beliefs of their family and community without question, often being unaware that there are any other faiths. The greatest religious influence on young children is, naturally, their parents and the lifestyle, religious or otherwise, of the family. Thus parents influence morality, behaviour and faith, or lack of it.
Research by Petrovic in Bilingual Education (1988) found that most very young children thought God made the world and many described him as ‘a man without a body’. Many said they felt God was close to them. However, as children get older God becomes more ‘invisible and everywhere’. Although religious participation is fairly high up to age 14, there is a marked decline by 15 to 16 years (though as adults many return to the religion of their parents).
In a survey in 1944, Kuhlen and Arnold in ‘Review of Child Development Research’ reported the following results among adolescents:
■ belief in literal truth of Bible: age 12 79%, age 15 51%, age 18 34%
■ belief in God: age 12 82%, age 15 78%, age 18 74%
Older people
As adults, most people retain their faith, though with age comes less belief in heaven, hell and the afterlife. In the over 60 age group, views tend to diversify with some retaining the same faith since childhood while others convert to another faith or abandon religion altogether. More old people than young believe in the afterlife and say that religion makes them feel happier and less lonely. Almost ironically, Argyle noted that:
‘It is sometimes believed that the elderly possess some deep wisdom and dignity. From observation of the very old this is obviously not always the case.’