OCR special
Pre-Socratic philosophers
Continuing a series that has worked backwards through Aristotle, Plato and Socrates, Jon Mayled reaches those philosophers generally known as the Pre-Socratics
OCR special paper G581
The Pre-Socratics include Greek philosophers before Socrates and others who, although contemporary with him, did not come under his influence. They marked the beginning of western philosophy in Greece during the sixth century BCE.
The first recognised group of thinkers are known as theologians as they based their philosophy on essentially supernatural ideas. The later group are referred to as natural philosophers who looked for natural explanations of the world.
All that exists of the teachings of the Pre-Socratics are references in the later writings of others and a few textual fragments.
The Pre-Socratic method of critical reasoning to examine the natural world was used by Socrates to examine the human individual and social institutions. A brief study of the teachings of the Pre-Socratics shows the origins of many of the ideas found in later thinkers.
Setting aside the work of the theologians, the Pre-Socratics asked questions such as:
■ Where do things come from?
■ What are things created of?
■ Can nature be described by mathematics?
These philosophers are now referenced in eight groups, as follows.
Milesian School
The ruins of Miletus are on the western coast of Anatolia (now in Turkey). The so-called ‘father of Greek philosophy’ Thales (624–546 BCE) taught that the basis of everything was water. Thales was followed at Miletus by Anaximander (610–546 BCE). He argued that creation was from an unlimited substance which had no qualities in itself. From this he said that opposites such as wet and dry and hot and cold were formed. Finally came Anaximenes (585–525 BCE) who believed the primary element to be air, from which, by modification, earth, clouds, fire, water and wind were formed.
Pythagorean School
Pythagoras of Samos (582–496 BCE) believed that the whole world existed in perfect harmony and that therefore humanity should do the same. Pythagoras’ followers went to his school at Croton in southern Italy. His main followers were:
■ Alcmaeon of Croton (born 510 BCE) —Aristotle argued that Alcmaeon was not a Pythagorean and taught a double principle, though he does not clarify what this was.
■ Philolaus (470–380 BCE) — who argued that at the foundation of everything are the parts played by the principles of limit and the unlimited.
■ Archytas (428–347 BCE) — credited with the Archytas Curve.
Ephesian School
Heraclitus of Ephesus (c. 535–475 BCE) lived on the western coast of Anatolia. He taught that everything in nature was in a state of flux but that this flux was controlled by a logical structure, which he named Logos (reason). He taught that of the four classical elements (earth, fire, wind and water) everything has its origins in fire and eventually returns to fire.
Eleatic School
The Eleatic School was founded in the town of Elea (Velia in southern Italy). Xenophanes of Colophon (570–470 BCE) developed the Doctrine of the One, with God as the eternal unity, who governed the universe simply by his thought. His followers included Parmenides of Elea (510–440 BCE), who said that this One was the only truth and that change was simply an appearance without reality. Zeno of Elea (490–430 BCE) supported this view, saying that believing there is change or multiplicity simply leads to contradictions.
Melissus of Samos (born c. 470 BCE) was another member of the Eleatic school. Melissus argued that the One did not come into existence and could not be destroyed, so therefore is eternal:
1 Whatever comes to be must have a beginning.
2 The One did not come to be.
3 Therefore, the One does not have a beginning.
4 Therefore, the One is eternal.
5 Whatever has a beginning must also end.
6 The One did not have a beginning.
7 Therefore, the One will not end.
8 Therefore, the One is eternal.
Pluralist School
This school was founded by Empedocles of Agrigentum (490–430 BCE) in the city of Akragas (Agrigento, in Sicily). He agreed with the Eleatic that the substance was unchangeable but believed that there was a plurality of substances: earth, water, air and fire. These, he said, built up the world by the working of the two ideal forces: love bringing union and strife causing separation.
Another member of the Pluralist School was Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (500–428 BCE) who saw material substance as having an infinite number of imperishable primary elements ordered by mind or divine reason. He was also responsible for establishing the first philosophy school in Athens.
Atomist School
In Thrace, Leucippus (fifth century BCE) and his pupil Democritus of Abdera (460– 370 BCE) developed the doctrine of atoms. These were an infinite number of primary bodies which move eternally and unite to produce objects which vary according to the characteristics of the atoms forming them.
Sophism
Sophism (wisdom) was a method of teaching. The Sophists were teachers who specialised in using philosophy and rhetoric for teaching arete (excellence, or virtue).
Prominent Sophists include:
■ Protagoras (490–420 BCE), Abdera in Thrace
■ Gorgias (487– c. 376 BCE), Leontini in Sicily
■ Hippias (485–415 BCE), Elis in the Peloponnesos
■ Prodicus (465–c.390 BCE), Ceos
They believed that all thought rested solely on the senses and was subjective, so any actions relied on the conventions of each individual.
Diogenes of Apollonia
Also from Thrace, Diogenes of Apollonia (born c. 460 BCE) was the last of the Pre-Socratic philosophers. His teachings were very similar to those of the Milesian School except that, like Anaximenes, he identified the single material principle as being air.
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