Fundamentalism and new religious movements: The future of UK religion?
New religious movements are a key topic in the sociology of religion, and an area of great interest and debate. Gordon Reid examines the impact of these movements and fundamentalism on today’s religious landscape
While traditional religion may be in decline in the UK, two areas are growing rapidly — fundamentalism and new religious movements (NRMs). But what are they and what has caused them to become so popular?
Fundamentalism
Fundamentalists believe that religious ‘truths’ should be applied fully and often literally, in every situation. The term ‘fundamentalism’ comes from a series of pamphlets written by theologians between 1910 and 1915 called ‘The Fundamentals: A Testimony of Truth’, in which they argued that there were fundamental ‘truths’ of Christianity which everyone should accept. These included the perfection of the Bible, the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ and the second coming.
Since then, fundamentalism has evolved in other religions too, including Islam, and is generally seen by outsiders as a response by members of a religious faith to fears that their religious beliefs are under attack. In its militant form, fundamentalism can lead to violence — for example, the attack on the World Trade Center in 2001 and the London bombings of July 2005. In his 2007 Christmas message, Archbishop of Wales Dr Barry Morgan said:
‘Any kind of fundamentalism — be it biblical, atheistic or Islamic — is dangerous because it allows no room for disagreement, for doubt, for debate, for discussion.’
Causes of fundamentalism
At the heart of fundamentalism is the belief that religious sacred texts are the absolute and accurate word of God and that, as such, these writings are beyond criticism. Many fundamentalists oppose the work of scholars who criticise the accuracy and authenticity of sacred texts. Linked to this is the fundamentalist rejection of those scientific theories which they see as attacking and conflicting with sacred texts — for example, in the Bible, the creation account in Genesis 1 as opposed to the theory of evolution.
IN ITS MILITANT FORM, FUNDAMENTALISM CAN LEAD TO VIOLENCE — FOR EXAMPLE, THE ATTACK ON THE WORLD TRADE CENTER IN 2001
Many fundamentalists are also concerned with the way that the authority of religion in today’s society has been replaced with rational thinking and new political ideas. They feel that society is too tolerant of anti-religious behaviour and liberal attitudes. For many fundamentalists, religious teachings should be followed to the letter as, they believe, these teachings are directly from God himself. For example, many Muslim fundamentalists in the UK would like to see the introduction of sharia law into certain aspects of British Muslims’ lives.
FUNDAMENTALISTS HAVE THEIR CRITICS. THEY ARE OFTEN ACCUSED OF BEING INTOLERANT, ARROGANT AND LACKING IN COMPASSION.
Characteristics of fundamentalism
Today there are fundamentalists in many major religious traditions, and in most cases they display similar characteristics. For example:
■ Some fundamentalist groups believe that modern society is preoccupied with material possessions and people are rejecting traditional religious values. Such fundamentalists respond by withdrawing from society (the Amish, for example), or form pressure groups to campaign for a return to religious values. Some react with militancy and violence, such as the clashes between Hindus and Muslims in India and Buddhists and Hindus in Sri Lanka.
■ Some fundamentalists stress the superiority of their religious beliefs over all others. They interpret certain moral texts literally — for example, the Westboro Baptist Church in the USA frequently campaigns against homosexuality. Similarly, others claim that the world is sinful and doomed and that the only hope of being saved is to accept their viewpoint.
■ Many fundamentalists are convinced that their beliefs are completely right and unchangeable — theirs is the only true faith and it is their sacred texts which come directly from God and are without error. For instance, in Buddhist and Hindu fundamentalism the sacred teachings of Anagarika Dharmapala and Shankayracharya of Puri are said to be inspired by God and must be accepted without question.
■ Most fundamentalist groups believe they are God’s special people (‘the elect’) and that they are chosen by God to carry out his will. At its most extreme, the Islamic militants responsible for the destruction of the World Trade Center believed they had been called by God to defend their true faith in this way.
■ For some fundamentalists there is a clear divide between believers (the saved) and non-believers (the unsaved). This division may be physical, such as the Haredi Jews who live and work in close proximity, or the Amish in Christianity, who live and work in a closed community.
■ A number of fundamentalist groups are led by a charismatic leader who, with a few close followers, makes all the important decisions, and whose orders must be obeyed without question. Often the leader (usually male) is set apart from the rest and revered, such as the followers of Jim Jones and David Koresh.
■ Sometimes fundamentalist groups have distinctive dress codes — the Jewish Haredim wear black coats and hats and the Hindu Shakhas wear shorts and staves.
Fundamentalists have their critics. They are often accused of being intolerant, arrogant and lacking in compassion. They ignore outsiders, are often male-orientated and give no room for discussion and compromise, especially over their claim that only they have access to the truth.
That said, fundamentalist movements are growing in the UK because they challenge people to take the religious and spiritual side of life more seriously and offer them certainties when mainstream faiths seem unable to do so. Fundamentalists have strong convictions, unshakeable faith and confidence and trust in what they believe to be true. Often, they have a strong sense of community linked with a strict moral code which guides their daily lives. Given these certainties, perhaps it is not surprising that religious fundamentalism is increasing in the UK, with more places of worship and increased publication of literature and use of television and internet to spread the message. Fundamentalism will continue to be a significant presence in the UK for many years to come.
New religious movements (NRMs)
In recent years, many people in the UK have become disillusioned with traditional, established religion. Some feel, for example, that the Catholic and Protestant Churches are concerned more with social change and secularisation than they are with worship and evangelism. This causes some people to feel disadvantaged and deprived and they seek their answers to matters of faith elsewhere.
NRMs are groupings of religious believers who have come together because they are disillusioned with secularisation and the emphasis on self. Often, believers turn to NRMs because they have heard a new message from a charismatic preacher or witnessed a vibrant religious community that seems to address their needs. Some of these groups are familiar — for example, Scientologists and Rastafarians.
Different NRMs
However, not all NRMs are the same. Some are concerned with promoting particular teachings, others oppose modern trends and some incorporate a mix of religious ideas or seek to find ways to gain a sense of the divine.
■ Scientology, Eckanker and the Jewish Havurot movement all developed out of disillusionment with established religion, with members believing that long-established religious organisations are too ready to compromise their beliefs to fit in with secular society.
■ Rastafarians and a number of black Muslim NRMs have grown up in poorer areas, where they offer people an explanation for their poverty by declaring that the world is corrupt and depraved. They offer their members a new ‘theology of disprivilege’ to help in their suffering.
■ Some NRMs evolve as a reaction against religious pluralism and the growth of media influence in modern society, or as a reaction against a technical, scientific and impersonal society. These include Hindu and Zen groups and the Divine Light Mission.
Some NRMs are led by charismatic leaders with an exceptional ability for preaching and persuasion. These include:
■ the Unification Church (Moonies), originally led by Sun Myung Moon
■ ISKCON (Hare Krishna), led by Swami Prabhupada
■ the Branch Davidians, led by David Koresh
Groups such as the Branch Davidians, Jesus Army and The Family see human society as so corrupt and evil that the only way to be close to God is to live separately in a religious community that is isolated from the world, following a strong leader and a strict moral code.
NRMs like Scientology, Transcendental Meditation and the Landmark Forum see the world and society as basically good. Their aim is to help people achieve their potential through encouragement, understanding, happiness and relationships. For them, religious leaders are respected but not revered and there is no requirement to live in a community.
Finally, there are those, like Jehovah’s Witnesses and Mormons, who see the world and society as neither good or bad. They seek religious revival, spiritual renewal and a return to the ways of God. Leadership is a privilege and is shared. Members lead ordinary lifestyles.
Growing or dwindling?
It is a crucial time for NRMs. While worldrejecting, isolated NRMs will probably continue to develop and grow among the poor and deprived, membership of this type of NRM is dwindling overall, largely due to negative publicity. It may be that some NRMs are themselves becoming traditional and lacking in their original dynamism. Perhaps these NRMs will be replaced by newer ones.